Kate Street

Regular physical activity is widely recognised as a cornerstone of long-term health, supporting metabolic function, musculoskeletal health, cognitive wellbeing, and healthy ageing.1 It is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and all-cause mortality.1 Despite this, physical inactivity remains a significant global health challenge, with approximately one-third of adults worldwide not meeting recommended physical activity guidelines.1Importantly, exercise is most effective when it incorporates a varied movement profile.2 Combined aerobic, muscle-strengthening, and regular daily movement activities are increasingly recognised as important for supporting cardiometabolic health, physical function, and healthy ageing.3<h3> </h3><h3>The benefits of movement extend beyond fitness</h3>The benefits of exercise extend well beyond body composition or athletic performance. Resistance training plays an important role in preserving muscle mass, strength, and functional capacity with ageing, helping to counter the progression of sarcopenia and osteopenia.4,5 Regular physical activity is also associated with improvements in mental wellbeing, sleep quality, metabolic health,6 digestive function, microbiome composition,7 and overall healthspan.8

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When steps countEmerging evidence suggests that meaningful health benefits may occur at lower activity levels than traditionally assumed. A meta-analysis involving more than 226,000 participants found reductions in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality at step counts well below 10,000 steps per day (see Figure 1).9 Health benefits were observed from approximately 3,867 steps/day for all-cause mortality and 2,337 steps/day for cardiovascular mortality.9 Each additional 1,000 steps/day was associated with a 15% reduction in all-cause mortality risk, while every additional 500 steps/day was associated with a 7% reduction in cardiovascular mortality risk.9

<img src="https://images.contentstack.io/v3/assets/blt948bd74310fc0ad0/blt0a25c8770936222a/6ab49fdfafd558412c4a0933/steps.png" alt="steps.png" class="embedded-asset" />
Figure 1. The relationship between step count and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.9A separate systematic review and meta-analysis including 96,173 participants also reported associations between daily step counts and mental health outcomes, with ≥5,000 steps/day linked to reduced depressive symptoms and ≥7,000 steps/day associated with a lower risk of depression.10
<hr /><h3>Cellular benefits of exercise</h3>Exercise acts as a controlled physiological stressor that initiates adaptive responses underpinning improvements in strength, aerobic capacity, metabolic health, and physical resilience.11 These adaptations are not determined by training stimulus alone, but by the interaction between training, recovery, and nutritional status.12At a cellular level, exercise stimulates neuromuscular remodelling, improved metabolic efficiency through enhanced glucose regulation, and mitochondrial adaptations.11 Mitochondria are the primary energy-producing organelles of the cell, responsible for generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required for muscle contraction and recovery.13 Exercise promotes mitochondrial biogenesis (the formation of new mitochondria) and enhances mitochondrial efficiency, supporting improved energy availability, endurance, and reduced fatigue over time.13Contracting muscle also behaves as an endocrine organ, releasing signalling molecules called myokines that travel through the bloodstream to the brain, liver, bone, fat, and immune system.14 These molecules coordinate many of the systemic benefits of training, including anti-inflammatory effects, metabolic regulation, and neuroplasticity, and their release scales with exercise intensity, underscoring that the quality of the stimulus matters as much as its volume.14These processes occur across the recovery period and are influenced by the body’s ability to respond to physiological stress.15 When recovery capacity is insufficient, training adaptations are attenuated and fatigue accumulates over time.12Within this framework, performance optimisation can target both acute exercise capacity and the underlying physiological systems that support adaptation.<h3> </h3><h3>Rethinking the role of performance supplements</h3>While multi-ingredient ‘pre-workout’ formulations are widely used, many contain high concentrations of caffeine and other stimulatory compounds, raising considerations around cumulative intake and appropriate use, particularly among younger individuals and those consuming additional dietary caffeine sources.16 Recent regulatory updates in Australia and New Zealand have also introduced tighter controls on caffeine-containing sports foods, reflecting increased attention to safety and standardisation.17Within this context, however, a small number of well-characterised ingredients demonstrate consistent evidence for improving exercise performance when used alongside a nutritionally adequate diet (see Table 1). Table 1. Common ergogenic aids used to enhance exercise performance<table><thead><tr><th>Ingredient</th><th>Benefit</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Activated B vitamin complex</td><td>Supports cellular energy production, oxygen transport, muscular endurance, and the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein involved in exercise performance.18</td></tr><tr><td>Beta-alanine</td><td>Increases intramuscular carnosine concentrations, helping buffer hydrogen ions and delay muscular fatigue during high-intensity exercise.19</td></tr><tr><td>Betaine</td><td>Supports cellular hydration and methylation pathways, with emerging evidence suggesting benefits for muscular endurance, power, and body composition.20</td></tr><tr><td>Caffeine</td><td>Enhances endurance, strength, and alertness, and reduces perceived exertion through central nervous system stimulation and improved exercise capacity.16</td></tr><tr><td>Citrulline</td><td>Supports nitric oxide production and blood flow, potentially enhancing exercise capacity and muscular endurance.19</td></tr><tr><td>Creatine</td><td>Supports ATP regeneration, high-intensity performance, muscular strength, power output, and training adaptation.21</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrates</td><td>Enhances nitric oxide availability, supporting blood flow, oxygen efficiency, endurance, and exercise economy.22</td></tr><tr><td>Taurine</td><td>May improve exercise capacity, reduce muscle damage, increase muscle contractility, decrease fatigue, and alleviate exercise-induced oxidative stress.23</td></tr><tr><td>Tyrosine</td><td>Can cross the blood-brain barrier and support cognitive performance, focus, and resilience to physical and mental stress, particularly during prolonged or demanding exercise.24</td></tr></tbody></table>These ingredients primarily support acute performance capacity, either through central nervous system effects, energy substrate availability, or buffering and vasodilatory mechanisms.<h3> </h3><h3>Targeting adaptation and recovery systems</h3>Beyond acute performance, a range of nutraceuticals may support the physiological systems involved in recovery, adaptation, and resilience.Foundational recovery practices remain essential, including the consumption of a balanced, nutrient- and energy-dense diet, adequate rest, and hydration and electrolyte replacement. These should be tailored to individual training load, recovery demands, and performance goals.19,25Recovery following exercise involves metabolic, inflammatory, and neuromuscular processes that are influenced by nutritional status and recovery practices.19 Nutritional and supplementation strategies may help support performance, recovery, and training adaptation, particularly during periods of increased training demand (see Table 2).19 Table 2. Key ingredients with growing evidence to support exercise recovery<table><thead><tr><th>Ingredient</th><th>Benefit</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Adaptogens (e.g. ashwagandha, ginseng)</td><td>May improve physical stamina, muscle strength, energy levels and endurance, and modulate cortisol levels.26</td></tr><tr><td>Iron</td><td>Essential for oxygen transport, muscle function, and aerobic capacity, with deficiency recognised as a common and often underdiagnosed cause of fatigue and impaired endurance. Correcting deficiencies improves performance.27</td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium</td><td>A critical cofactor in energy metabolism and muscle function, with suboptimal status associated with fatigue, chronic inflammation, impaired performance, and reduced recovery.28</td></tr><tr><td>Omega-3 fatty acids</td><td>Potent anti-inflammatory compounds that reduce oxidative stress and influence pain signalling and muscle activation. May help mitigate exercise-induced muscle damage, with evidence suggesting reductions in delayed-onset muscle soreness.29</td></tr><tr><td>Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA)</td><td>Modulates inflammatory and pain pathways, supports sleep quality, and may reduce skeletal muscle damage in response to eccentric contractions.30</td></tr><tr><td>Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Wellmune®)</td><td>Supports recovery by enhancing innate immune gene expression responses following exercise, improving responsiveness to inflammatory signals and increasing resistance to infection.31</td></tr><tr><td>Ubiquinol</td><td>Supports mitochondrial bioenergetics and ATP production,32 and reduces muscle damage.33</td></tr><tr><td>Vitamin D</td><td>Plays a key role in muscle function, protein synthesis, immune regulation, inflammatory response, cell growth, and musculoskeletal regulation, with higher serum levels associated with reduced injury rates and better sports performance.34</td></tr><tr><td>Zinc</td><td>Plays a key role in cellular homeostasis, particularly in skeletal muscle, where it supports muscle cell activation, proliferation, differentiation, and regeneration.35</td></tr></tbody></table>

Research highlight: UbiquinolA recent 2025 crossover study involving normal-weight and overweight young adult males (n=42) found that post-workout supplementation of a sports drink alongside ubiquinol, consumed within 10 minutes of exercise completion, improved resistance exercise performance and markers of muscle recovery following repeated bouts of exercise.33<h3> </h3><h3>Immune function and training continuity</h3>Periods of intense or prolonged exercise can transiently disrupt immune function, increasing susceptibility to illness and missed training sessions.31 Emerging evidence suggests that certain interventions may help support immune resilience during these periods.31A recent study of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or baker’s yeast beta-glucan (Wellmune®), demonstrated enhanced innate immune gene expression following exercise, suggesting improved post-exercise immune responsiveness and recovery capacity.31 These findings highlight a role for immune-modulating interventions in supporting training consistency rather than directly enhancing performance.31<h3> </h3><h3>Conclusion</h3>Exercise is one of the most effective tools for supporting long-term health, physical function, and metabolic resilience. However, optimal outcomes depend on the interaction between training stimulus, recovery, and nutritional status rather than training alone.Within this framework, evidence-based supplementation may provide targeted support for both acute performance and longer-term adaptation across key physiological systems. However, these strategies are most effective when underpinned by adequate fuelling, hydration, sleep, and structured recovery practices.Together, these elements form an integrated approach to supporting exercise performance, recovery, and long-term physiological health.
<h3>References</h3>1. World Health Organization. Physical activity. World Health Organization. 2024. Available from: :https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity2. World Health Organization. Physical Activity. World Health Organization. 2023. Available from: https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/physical-activity3. World Health Organization. WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/97892400151284. Hurst C et al. Resistance exercise as a treatment for sarcopenia: prescription and delivery. Age and Ageing. 2022 Feb;51(2). doi:10.1093/ageing/afac0035. Hong AR, Kim SW. Effects of Resistance Exercise on Bone Health. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2018;33(4):435. doi:10.3803/EnM.2018.33.4.4356. Mahindru A et al. Role of Physical Activity on Mental Health and well-being: a Review. Cureus. 2023.7. Severo JS et al. Physical Exercise as a Therapeutic Approach in Gastrointestinal Diseases. J Clin Med. 2025.8. Qiu Y et al. Exercise sustains the hallmarks of health. J Sport Health Sci. 2022. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2022.10.0039. Banach M et al. Daily step count and mortality meta-analysis. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2023. doi:10.1093/eurjpc/zwad22910. Bizzozero-Peroni B et al. Daily Step Count and Depression. JAMA Netw Open. 2024.11. Furrer R, Handschin C. Exercise response in skeletal muscle. Free Radic Biol Med. 2024. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2024.07.02612. Wang L et al. Post-exercise recovery nutrition. Nutrients. 2024. doi:10.3390/nu1623408113. Huertas JR et al. Mitochondria in movement. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2019. doi:10.1155/2019/705835014. Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA. Muscle as endocrine organ. Physiol Rev. 2008. doi:10.1152/physrev.90100.200715. Kozjek NR et al. Clinical sports nutrition. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2026. doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2026.10292116. Guest NS et al. Caffeine and exercise performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021.17. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. P1056 Caffeine Review. 202618. Wiacek M et al. Vitamin supplementation in sports. Nutrients. 2026. 19. Kerksick CM et al. ISSN sports nutrition review. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018.20. Perreras MSL, Kim J. Betaine supplementation. Phys Act Nutr. 2025. doi:10.20463/pan.2025.000821. Antonio J et al. Creatine supplementation review. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021.22. Macuh M, Knap B. Nitrate supplementation review. Nutrients. 2021.23. Santulli G et al. Taurine and health. Nutrients. 2023. doi:10.3390/nu1519423624. Solon-Júnior LJF et al. L-Tyrosine and endurance performance. Eur J Sport Sci. 2026. doi:10.1002/ejsc.7015025. Amawi AT et al. Athletes’ nutritional demands. Front Nutr. 2024.26. Amir M et al. Adaptogenic herbs and performance. Health Sci Rev. 2023. doi:10.1016/j.hsr.2023.10009227. Solberg A, Reikvam H. Iron status and performance. Life. 2023. doi:10.3390/life1310200728. Saric M et al. Magnesium review. Nutrients. 2025.29. Therdyothin A, Phiphopthatsanee N. Omega-3 and muscle damage. Cureus. 2025. doi:10.7759/cureus.8155930. Zoya Huschtscha et al. PEA and resistance training. Sports Med Open. 2024. doi:10.1186/s40798-024-00732-631. McFarlin BK et al. Beta-glucan and immune response. Methods. 2024. doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2024.07.01332. Derbyshire EJ et al. Ubiquinol and reproduction. Nutrients. 2026.33. Thar PP et al. CoQ10 and recovery. Sports Med Health Sci. 2025. doi:10.1016/j.smhs.2025.02.00534. de la Puente Yagüe M et al. Vitamin D in athletes. Nutrients. 2020.35. Hernández-Camacho JD et al. Zinc and exercise. Redox Biol. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.redox.2020.101529

<h3>Key highlights
</h3><ul><li>Performance is determined by the interaction between training stimulus, nutrition, recovery, and evidence-based supplementation strategies.</li><li>A range of well-characterised ingredients, including caffeine, creatine, and beta-alanine, have demonstrated evidence-based roles in supporting acute exercise performance when used appropriately.</li><li>Targeted nutraceuticals may support key physiological systems involved in energy production, inflammation, neuromuscular function, and adaptation.</li><li>Adequate fuelling, hydration, sleep, and structured recovery are foundational to all performance outcomes.</li></ul>

Key highlights

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